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53/ 


The  Early  History  of  Man 

With  Special  Reference  to  the 
Cap-Blanc  Skeleton 

BY 

HENRY  FIELD 
Assistant  Curator  of  Physical  Anthropology 


Anthropology 
Leaflet  26 


THE  UiRARY  OF  THE 
SEP  7     1927 

UNIVtiHSMY  ur   iLJiHOlS 


FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

CHICAGO 

1927 


The  Anthropological  Leaflets  of  Field  Museum  are  designed  to 
give  brief,  non-technical  accounts  of  some  of  the  more  interesting 
beliefs,  habits  and  customs  of  the  races  whose  life  is  illustrated 
in  the  Museum's  exhibits. 

LIST  OF  ANTHROPOLOGICAL  LEAFLETS  ISSUED  TO  DATE 

1.  The  Chinese  Gateway $  .10 

2.  The  Philippine  Forge  Group 10 

3.  The  Japanese  Collections 25 

4.  New  Guinea  Masks 25 

5.  The  Thunder  Ceremony  of  the  Pawnee 25 

6.  The  Sacrifice  to  the  Morning  Star  by  the 

Skidi  Pawnee 10 

7.  Purification  of  the  Sacred  Bundles,  a  Ceremony 

of  the  Pawnee 10 

8.  Annual  Ceremony  of  the  Pawnee  Medicine  Men      .        .10 

9.  The  Use  of  Sago  in. New  Guinea 10 

10.  Use  of  Human  Skulls  and  Bongs  in  Tibet       ...        .10 

11.  The  Japanes^N^w.  ^e^ar's  Festival,  Games 

and  Pas'times 25 

12.  Japanese  Costume 25 

13.  Gods  and  Heroes  of  Japan 25 

14.  Japanese  Temples  and  Houses 25 

15.  Use  of  Tobacco  among  North  American  Indians     .        .25 

16.  Use  of  Tobacco  in  Mexico  and  South  America    .     .        .25 

17.  Use  of  Tobacco  in  New  Guinea 10 

18.  Tobacco  and  Its  Use  in  Asia 25 

19.  Introduction  of  Tobacco  into  Europe 25 

20.  The  Japanese  Sword  and  Its  Decoration 25 

21.  Ivory  in  China 75 

22.  Insect-Musicians  and  Cricket  Champions  of  China    .        .50 

23.  Ostrich  Egg-shell  Cups  of  Mesopotamia  and  the 

Ostrich  in  Ancient  and  Modern  Times      .     .     .         .50 

24.  The  Indian  Tribes  of  the  Chicago  Region  with 

Special   Reference  to  the  Illinois  and  the 
Potawatomi  .25 

25.  Civilization  of  the  Mayas 75 

26.  Early  History  of  Man 25 


D.  C.  DAVIES.  Director 


FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 
CHICAGO,  U.  S.  A. 


Of  m 
mmtir  Of  liUHois 


'^ 


^^  THE  LI8flA«Y  r-^  v.]i 

SEP  7     1927 

UNIVEKSllY  Uf  (UiNUIS 
Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

Department  of  Anthropology 
Chicago,  1927 

Leaflett  Number  26 

The  Early  History  of  Man 
With  Special  Reference  to  the  Cap-Blanc  Skeleton 

Hundreds  of  millions  of  years  passed  before  any  animal 
that  could  be  definitely  recognized  as  human  had  evolved 
upon  the  earth.  Long,  long  periods  are  represented  by  pro- 
gress from  the  one-celled  organisms  to  the  many-celled, 
from  fish  to  amphibians,  from  reptiles  to  birds  and  mam- 
mals, and  so  to  the  final  evolutionary  product — man. 
During  this  time  the  struggle  for  very  existence,  and  more 
particularly  for  food,  plays  an  all-important  part. 

In  Leaflet  No.  8,  entitled  "How  Old  Are  Fossils?"  and 
issued  by  the  Department  of  Geology  of  Field  Musemn, 
are  set  forth  the  present  scientific  opinions  regarding  the 
time  involved  and  the  products  of  evolution  from  the 
beginnings  of  life  up  to  the  appearance  of  man. 

Branching  off  from  the  anthropoid  ape  stem  at  least 
a  million  years  ago,  our  ancestors  had  many  more  ape-like 
than  human  characters.  As  time  passed,  the  gap  between 
the  two  branches  grew  ever-widening. 

The  chain  of  evidence  upon  which  the  following 
observations  are  based  may  seem  obscure  to  the  la3rman, 
but  the  main  facts  become  clearer  as  our  knowledge  in- 
creases, while  details  are  always  subject  to  revision. 
It  is  only  by  the  joint  cooperation  of  the  geologist  and 
palaeontologist,  the  archaeologist,  and  anthropologist 
that  these  tentative  conclusions  have  been  drawn  during 
the  past  century. 

Human  remains  are  very  fragile  and,  when  buried, 
are  soon  subject  to  decay.   Hence  the  chances  of  preser- 


2  Field  Museum  op  Natural  History 

vation  are  very  small,  consequently  the  fossil  remains 
of  man  are  particularly  rare.  Implements  of  wood 
were  presumably  made,  but  these  were  soon  subject  to 
decay. 

Implements  or  artifacts  of  flint  are  practically  inde- 
structible, and  in  western  Europe  form  a  very  interesting 
and  reliable  series  of  types  which  now  can  be  chrono- 
logically arranged. 

For  example,  the  beautiful  flint  work  characteristic 
of  the  Solutrians  is  only  found  in  the  Solutrian  period, 
though  this  type  of  work  survived  in  Denmark,  and  was 
brought  to  perfection  after  bronze  had  been  introduced 
along  the  southern  trade-routes.  Our  earliest  ancestors 
probably  used  any  stone  which  seemed  to  fit  the  purpose 
on  hand,  after  which  it  was  discarded.  Later,  a  particu- 
larly serviceable  stone  might  be  retained  for  future  use, 
and  at  a  still  later  stage  the  stone  might  be  rendered  still 
more  useful  by  knocking  off  some  flakes  with  a  crude 
hammerstone.  "Trial  and  error"  must  have  been  the 
method  employed  until  a  definite  technique  had  been 
evolved.  As  can  easily  be  surmised,  thousands  of  flints 
which  have  been  excavated  are  so  crudely  chipped  that 
experts  differ  widely  as  to  whether  these  are  the  result  of 
human  workmanship  or  natural  agencies  such  as  heat, 
pressure  and  friction,  thermal  action  or  grinding  or  crush- 
ing, etc.,  in  the  earth. 

EARLIEST  TYPES  OF  FLINT  IMPLEMENTS 

Among  this  large  group  are  very  roughly  chipped 
flints  called  eoliths  ("dawn  stones")  which  have  been 
collected  in  great  numbers  in  England  and  Belgium 
from  strata  that  belong  to  a  relatively  early  geological 
date.  Professor  Breuil,  the  famous  French  prehistorian, 
accepts  a  very  small  proportion  of  these  eoliths  as 
artifacts. 

Future  work  will  throw  additional  light  on  this 
present  complex  and  difficult  problem. 


I-   S 


o   <; 


Early  History  of  Man  3. 

METHODS  OF  EXCAVATION 

Let  us  visit  a  cave  in  western  Europe,  where  the 
work  of  excavation  is  in  progress.  Provided  that  there 
has  been  no  disturbance  of  the  layers  or  strata  of  the  cave 
floor,  the  specimens  of  most  recent  date  will  lie  nearest  to 
the  surface,  while  the  deeper  the  excavations  proceed,  the 
older  will  be  the  objects  unearthed.  For  example,  all 
Aurignacian  material  will  lie  above  everything  belonging 
to  the  Mousterian  period,  and  so  on. 

Each  square  yard  of  the  cave  floor  will  be  pegged  out 
and  given  a  number.  The  earth  will  be  removed  over  the 
entire  floor  to  a  depth  of  one  foot.  The  greatest  care  will 
be  used  in  removing  this  stratum  of  earth,  which  is  passed 
through  sieves  of  various  sizes  to  ensure  the  finding  of 
even  the  smallest  objects.  As  each  object  is  found,  a 
mark  is  made  on  a  map  of  squared  paper  in  the  corres- 
ponding square-yard  number  allotted  to  that  part  of  the 
cave-floor.  Trained  scientists  are  in  charge  of  the  work, 
and  take  detailed  notes  which  will  be  rewritten  at  night 
and  filed  for  further  reference. 

From  the  animals  and  plants  found  buried  in  the 
deposit  the  excavator  can  determine  whether  the  climate 
was  cold,  warm,  or  tropical.  A  comparison  of  the  numer- 
ous caves  and  rock-shelters,  particularly  in  France,  has 
made  it  possible  to  form  a  definite  chronological  sequence 
of  implements  based  on  their  types  and  layers  of  deposit. 
The  further  back  in  time,  the  less  evidence  is  available, 
and  therefore  present  theories  concerning  the  dim,  early 
history  of  man  will  be  subject  to  modification  as  new  facts 
come  to  light. 

THE  JAVA  APE-MAN 

The  most  primitive  animal  remains  that  may  de- 
finitely be  termed  human  as  opposed  to  ape  were  unearthed 
in  1891  by  Dr.  Dubois  at  Trinil  in  Java. 

The  top  of  the  skull,  the  left  thigh-bone,  and  two 
molar  teeth  were  all  that  came  to  light,  and  naturally 


4  Field  Museum  op  Natural  History 

there  has  been  much  speculation  over  the  restoration  of 
Piihecanthropas  erectus — the  "ape-man-who-walked-erect" 
(see  restoration  in  Case  3  of  Stanley  Field  Hall).  The 
fragment  of  the  skull  shows  a  very  low,  retreating  forehead 
with  huge  brow-bridges.  The  estimated  capacity  of  the 
complete  skull  is  900  cubic  centimeters,  while  the  cranial 
capacity  of  the  gorilla  never  exceeds  600  cubic  centimeters, 
and  the  lowest  average  of  any  modern  race  is  never  below 
1225  cubic  centimeters.  The  capacity  of  the  brain  and  its 
convolutions  indicate  the  potentiality  for  organized 
thought  and  reason.  The  Java  skull  is,  therefore,  inter- 
mediate in  size  between  apes  and  man — a  true  "missing 
link,"  but  with  a  strong  leaning  toward  man. 

The  thigh-bone  is  distinctly  humanoid,  and  must 
have  belonged  to  an  animal  which  walked  in  a  semi-erect 
position. 

From  geological  evidence  it  is  roughly  estimated 
that  this  ape-man  roamed  over  Java  about  500,000  years 
ago. 

THE  CHELLEAN  PERIOD 

The  earliest  human  remains  found  in  Europe  to-date 
belong  to  the  Chellean  period  (so  called  from  the  type 
station  at  Chelles  in  northern  France).  This  period  began 
some  300,000  years  ago  with  a  mild  and  genial  climate. 

The  elephant  (Elephas  antiquus),  rhinoceros  (Rhino- 
ceros merckii) ,  and  the  hippopotamus  (Hippopotamus  am- 
phihius)  were  contemporaries  of  Chellean  man. 

He  must  have  been  rugged,  powerful- jawed  and,  to 
our  eyes,  very  ferocious  in  appearance.  These  conclusions 
are  based  upon  long  scientific  study  of  part  of  a  skull 
belonging  to  this  geological  time,  which  was  dug  up  at 
Piltdown  in  England,  and  hence  is  called  the  "Piltdown 
man"  (Eoanthropus  dawsoni). 

A  very  massive  lower  jaw  was  found  in  contempo- 
raneous sands  at  Mauer  near  Heidelberg,  Germany.  This 
is  the  largest  lower  jaw  ever  found,  and  possesses  many 


Early  History  of  Man  5 

unusual  characteristics.  It  was  lying  in  the  Mauer  sands 
over  eighty  feet  below  the  surface,  which  will  give  some 
idea  of  its  antiquity,  judging  from  the  immense  time 
necessary  for  the  deposition  of  these  beds  of  sands. 

Animals  such  as  rhinoceros  {Rhinoceros  merckii) 
indicate  warm  climatic  conditions  at  that  time.  With 
crude  weapons  Chellean  man  must  have  been  more 
hunted  than  hunter.  He  almost  certainly  had  the  knowl- 
edge of  fire,  which  would  help  to  keep  off  marauding  wild 
animals  at  night.  His  implements  consisted  of  flint  or 
quartzite  hand-axes  (coups-de-poing)  which  in  some  cases 
are  beautifully  finished,  showing  a  remarkable  skill  and 
technique  on  the  part  of  their  makers.  The  butt  end  of 
the  implement  was  left  rough  and  unchipped  to  provide  a 
gripping  point  for  the  hand.  From  the  high  quality  of  the 
workmanship  it  is  certain  that  many  earlier  and  crude 
types  of  implements  existed,  but  the  line  dividing  man's 
handiwork  from  the  work  of  natural  forces  is  very  finely 
drawn. 

THE   ACHEULEAN   PERIOD 

Thousands  of  generations  passed  during  which  the 
improvement  in  flint-working  became  more  and  more 
marked  until  the  Acheulean  period  was  reached. 

The  outstanding  difference  between  the  Chellean 
hand-axe  and  that  characteristic  of  Acheulean  times 
is  the  small  size,  beautiful  finish,  and  almond-shape  of  the 
latter.  These  are  chipped  around  the  entire  edge,  and 
presumably  were  hafted  in  some  manner. 

From  palaeontological  evidence  the  climate  had  now 
become  much  colder,  because  the  mammoth  and  other 
fauna  which  are  associated  with  cold  conditions  made 
their  first  appearance. 

THE   MOUSTERIAN   PERIOD 

Another  big  interval  of  time  found  Europe  still  under 
the  effects  of  a  cold  climate  at  an  approximate  date  of 
40,000  years  ago. 


6  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

The  mammoth  {Elephas  primigenius) ,  the  wild  rein- 
deer {Rangifer  tarandus),  and  other  cold-loving  animals 
wandered  over  western  Europe.  The  first  human  remains 
of  this  period  were  excavated  at  Neanderthal  near  Bonn  in 
Germany  in  the  year  1856  (see  restoration  in  Case  3  of 
Stanley  Field  Hall).  The  huge  brow-ridges  and  other 
anatomical  peculiarities  were  first  thought  to  be  the  result 
of  some  pathological  condition.  Since  then  a  complete 
series  of  Neanderthaloid  skeletons  (that  is,  typologically 
similar  to  the  original  Neanderthal  skeleton)  have  been 
found,  which  enable  complete,  but  tentative  reconstruc- 
tions to  be  made. 

The  whole  period  is  called  after  the  t3rpical  rock- 
shelter  at  Le  Moustier  in  southwestern  France,  where  a 
practically  complete  skeleton  was  unearthed  in  1908. 

From  a  distance  a  Neanderthal  man  would  immedi- 
ately attract  attention.  His  head  was  thrown  slightly 
forward,  and  was  carried  in  that  position  by  very  strong 
neck-muscles.  His  knees  remained  slightly  bent  owing  to 
the  curvature  of  the  thigh-bones.  His  face  had  a  fierce 
expression,  emphasized  by  the  enormous  brow-ridges,  his 
eyes  were  large  and  round,  and  his  nose  was  broad  and  flat. 
The  large  canine  teeth  were  another  peculiar  character.  The 
low  forehead  reduced  the  space  for  the  development  of  the 
frontal  lobes  of  the  brain;  however,  the  back  of  the  skull 
(occipital  region)  and  its  exceptional  width  in  this  region 
compensated  for  the  small  frontal  region.  However,  cra- 
nial capacity  is  no  criterion  of  intelligence,  but  merely 
suggests  potentiality.  Many  factors  seem  to  be  at  work 
and,  within  certain  limits  of  size,  quality,  not  necessarily 
quantity,  seems  to  be  the  sponsor  of  genius.  The  size  of 
man's  brain  and  the  corresponding  power  of  reason  have 
made  him  "lord  of  creation"  at  present. 

As  to  the  Neanderthal  or  Mousterian  hunters,  a  cave 
with  a  fire  at  the  entrance  formed  excellent  protection 
from  wild  animals  and  the  prevalent  cold  climatic  condi- 
tions. Family  life  was  the  main  feature  of  that  period.  The 


Early  History  op  Man  7 

implements  show  much  less  specialization,  and  many  new 
types  had  came  into  use.  The  hand-axes  belong  to  the 
two  preceding  periods.  Flint  knives,  scrapers,  and  points 
of  various  kinds  suggest  many  different  uses,  among 
others  the  scraping  and  dressing  of  skins  for  clothes. 
Beautiful  examples  of  flint  workmanship  have  been  found 
Ijdng  beside  a  buried  Neanderthal  hunter,  which  would 
suggest  a  belief  in  the  future  life  even  at  this  early  date. 

The  wide  distribution  of  skeletons  of  this  race  over 
Europe  and  as  far  east  as  Palestine  (the  Galilee  skull)  is 
another  interesting  fact.  This  race,  which  was  in  all 
probability  just  off  the  main  line  of  man's  progressive 
evolution,  seems  to  have  left  no  direct  modern  descendants. 

THE  AURIGNACIAN  PERIOD 

The  climate  was  still  very  cold,  but  less  severe  at  the 
advent  of  the  Aurignacian  period  (so  called  from  the  type 
station  at  Aurignac,  France)  some  thousands  of  years  later 
than  the  preceding  period. 

The  Cro-Magnons,  as  people  of  this  age  are  called, 
were  tall,  handsome,  and  well-built,  and  would  attract 
attention  to-day  on  account  of  their  remarkable  physique 
and  resemblance  to  modem  man  (restoration  in  Case  3  of 
Stanley  Field  Hall). 

The  struggle  for  food  was  not  so  intense,  and  conse- 
quently more  time  was  left  for  the  development  of  a  latent 
artistic  sense.  Here  is  the  dawn  of  art.  Several  of  the 
more  typical  Mousterian  types  of  implements  had  dis- 
appeared, but  new  forms,  such  as  gravers,  keeled  scrapers, 
etc.,  took  their  place. 

Natural  resemblances  to  an  animal  upon  the  wall  of  a 
cave  or  shelter-rock  were  accentuated  by  a  few  scratches 
with  a  flint  tool  or  by  the  application  of  some  colored  pig- 
ment such  as  red,  yellow,  black,  or  white.  Animals  were 
carved  upon  pieces  of  stone  or  ivory,  because  models 
would  simplify  the  faithful  reproduction  of  the  animals  on 


8  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

the  walls  of  the  innermost  recesses  of  the  caves.  Life-like 
representations  of  animals,  and  very  occasionally  human 
beings,  were  painted  or  sculptured  on  the  walls  or  ceilings 
of  caves  in  France  and  Spain.  Small  human  figurines, 
emphasizing  the  female  characteristics,  have  been  un- 
earthed in  different  parts  of  Europe.  Each  example  is 
now  called  a  "Venus"  (compare  "Venus  of  Laussel") 
which,  with  our  modem  conceptions  of  beauty,  is  indeed  a 
misnomer. 

The  use  of  a  new  material,  namely  bone,  appeared  at 
this  time;  and  bone  needles,  awls,  lance-points,  etc., 
played  a  very  important  part  in  the  cultural  development 
of  the  Cro-Magnon  people. 

Personal  adornment  was  also  a  new  development 
apparently  introduced  during  that  period.  Necklaces  of 
reindeer  teeth,  sea-shells,  or  fish  vertebrae  were  worn  by 
the  women.  Ivory  beads  probably  corresponded  in  value 
to  pearls. 

In  the  caves  of  Grimaldi  near  Mentone  a  distinct  race 
seems  to  have  lived  during  that  period.  The  Grimaldi 
race  appears  to  have  possessed  some  negroid  characters 
such  as  long  narrow  heads,  flat  noses,  protruding  lower 
jaws,  and  long  lower  limbs,  although  it  was  not  excep- 
tionally tall. 

The  distribution  of  Aurignacian  stations  is  again 
mainly  concentrated  in  Europe,  while  cultural  types  occur 
in  North  Africa  and  eastward  to  the  North  Arabian  desert. 

THE  SOLUTRIAN  PERIOD 

The  climate  was  now  becoming  colder,  and  the  horse 
and  the  reindeer  were  the  chief  sources  of  food  supply. 

The  Solutrian  race  (type  station  Solutr^,  France) 
probably  came  across  the  central  massif  of  Europe,  bringing 
the  most  beautiful  flint  technique — almost  unsurpassed  to 
this  day.  The  use  of  bone  seems  to  be  less  characteristic 
than  in  the  earlier  period,  although  it  was  used  to  remove 
tiny  flint  flakes  by  "pressure  flaking." 


Early  History  of  Man  -  9 

Fourteen  skeletons  have  been  excavated  in  the  loess — 
a  wind-blown  deposit — near  Predmost  in  Czecho-Slovakia, 
as  well  as  mammoth  bones  representing  a  thousand  indi- 
vidual animals.  The  physical  characteristics  of  the  skulls 
show  that  these  people  possessed  long  heads,  small  brow- 
ridges,  and  short  narrow  faces  with  a  close  resemblance  to 
modem  man.  This  period  is  relatively  short  compared 
with  the  duration  of  the  periods  preceding  the  Solutrian. 

THE  MAGDALENIAN  PERIOD 

The  cold  climate  again  settled  over  Europe.  The  new 
period  was  called  the  Magdalenian  after  the  type  station  of 
La  Madeleine  in  southwestern  France.  The  people  of  that 
period  were  tall,  of  good  physique,  with  a  general  modem 
appearance,  although  they  lived  some  25,000  years  ago. 
In  Case  3  of  Stanley  Field  Hall  there  is  the  original  skeleton 
of  a  young  man  of  that  period.  As  food  was  plentiful, 
more  time  could  be  given  to  the  development  of  art,  which 
reached  its  climax  at  that  time.  Flint  still  formed  part  of 
the  material  for  implements,  but  bone  superseded  it  in  the 
majority  of  cases. 

Among  weapons  there  were  spear-throwers  and  har- 
poons of  various  kinds,  while  bone  needles,  awls,  etc.,  were 
the  domestic  equipment.  In  order  to  light  the  caves  and 
caverns,  animal  fat  was  burnt  in  stone  lamps. 

Let  us  visit  one  of  those  caves  in  southwest  France  to 
examine  some  of  the  famous  cave  paintings.  Cave  equip- 
ment, such  as  matches,  candles,  acetylene  lamps,  ropes, 
and  rope  ladders,  is  carried  to  the  mouth  of  the  cave  by 
several  local  guides.  The  lamps  are  lit,  and  in  single  file 
we  leave  the  daylight  and  enter  the  dark  mouth  of  the  cave. 
The^first  hundred  feet  or  so  are  relatively  easy  to  cover  on 
foot.  The  cave  walls  are  damp,  and  there  is  a  constant  drip 
of  water  from  the  roof.  The  men  in  front  are  silhouetted 
against  their  swinging  lamps,  and  their  voices  sound 
weird  and  eerie  as  each  echo  repeats  them.  Travelling 
becomes  increasingly  harder,  and  progress  much  slower  as 


10  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

we  slip  and  slide  on  the  sloping  wet  floor.  There  are  places 
where  a  rope  is  necessary  to  enable  us  to  descend  to  a 
steep,  narrow  part  of  the  cave.  The  beautiful  stalactite 
"curtains"  appear  very  majestic  by  the  light  of  our  lanterns 
and  candles.  After  some  hours  of  perilous  climbing,  we 
reach  a  rock-gallery  where,  with  the  aid  of  our  flickering 
lights,  we  see  the  impressive  paintings  of  prehistoric  man. 
The  difficulty  of  access  and  the  true  realism  of  the  pictures 
leave  a  lasting  impression  on  our  minds.  There  seems  to 
be  little  doubt  that  the  artist  would  not  have  chosen  such 
an  inaccessible  place  upon  which  to  paint  his  pictures  if  it 
were  merely  art  for  art's  sake. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  these  paintings  were  in- 
spired by  some  magico-religious  purpose.  This  may  be 
illustrated  by  an  example  such  as  this:  One  of  the  hunters 
is  going  out  to  hunt  reindeer  to-morrow.  Food  has  been 
scarce  of  late,  and  his  family  is  hungry.  This  evening  he 
goes  to  the  medicine-man  of  his  tribe,  who  conducts  him 
after  dark,  into  the  cave,  which  is  full  of  mystery  and  awe. 
After  a  long  and  perilous  climb,  during  which  the  sound  of 
running  water  and  strange  echoes  have  duly  impressed  the 
hunter  of  the  sanctity  of  this  cave  and  the  fearlessness  of 
his  leader  and  master,  they  reach  the  innermost  chamber. 
Here  the  medicine-man  makes  incantations  before  the 
picture  of  a  reindeer,  painted  on  the  cave  wall.  After  the 
proper  ritual  he  tells  the  hunter  that  he  will  have  good  luck 
both  in  locating  and  killing  a  reindeer,  because  part  of  the 
reindeer  spirit  is  in  that  painted  example  on  the  wall.  The 
medicine-man  therefore  has  power  over  the  wild  reindeer 
which  he  has  given  to  the  hunter.  The  next  day  the  hunter 
goes  out  with  renewed  confidence,  and  is  successful  as  the 
medicine-man  has  predicted.  His  success  is  entirely 
attributed  to  the  magico-religious  rites  performed  before 
the  painted  reindeer  with  the  aid  of  the  tribal  medicine- 
man. 

Original  specimens  belonging  to  those  early  periods 
are  generally  kept  in  the  locality  in  which  they  have  been 
found,  and  in  many  cases  are  considered  national  property. 


Early  History  op  Man  11 

Field  Museum  has  been  fortunate  enough  recently  to 
obtain  from  M.  Grimaud  an  original  skeleton  belonging  to 
the  Magdalenian  period — the  only  palaeolithic  skeleton  in 
the  United  States  at  present  (Plate  I).  This  skeleton  is 
that  of  a  young  man  about  twenty-five  years  of  age,  and 
is  in  a  truly  remarkable  state  of  preservation,  consider- 
ing the  fact  that  he  was  living  in  southwest  France  about 
25,000  years  ago. 

The  human  form  is  rarely  represented  in  prehistoric 
art,  probably  for  the  reason  that  the  hunters  were  afraid 
that  an  enemy  would  have  some  supernatural  power  over 
them  by  their  leaving  an  actual  part  of  themselves  upon  a 
wall.  If  a  man  could  drive  an  arrow  into  a  picture  on  a 
wall,  he  would  have  additional  power  to  perform  the  same 
act  upon  his  enemy.  Similarly,  power  over  an  animal  could 
be  obtained  by  incantations  before  a  realistic  representa- 
tion of  the  animal  carved  or  painted  upon  the  cave  wall. 
Animals  which  were  hunted  are  therefore  the  commonest 
motifs.  These  are  also  engraved  upon  implements  of  the 
chase  with  great  realism.  For  example,  the  subjects  illus- 
trated in  Plates  VII  and  VIII  show  this  advanced  stage 
of  artistic  development. 

The  "grazing  reindeer"  (Plate  VII)  carved  upon  the 
handle  of  an  implement  implies  that  the  hunter  would 
have  more  chances  of  finding  the  reindeer  so  occupied  in 
grazing  that  he  would  not  notice  the  stealthy  approach  of 
the  hunter.  The  unsuspecting  reindeer  would  thus  fall 
an  easy  prey  to  this  weapon,  whereas  with  any  other 
weapon  not  so  engraved  the  hunter  would  not  have  had  the 
same  chance  of  success. 

The  climate  of  France  during  that  period  was  very 
different  from  that  of  the  present  time.  It  was  extremely 
cold,  and  the  hunters  must  have  been  terrified  by  the  large 
mammoths,  woolly  rhinoceroses,  and  other  huge  animals 
which  then  roamed  over  the  country.  The  herds  of  rein- 
deer must  have  been  a  very  remarkable  and  impressive 
sight  as  they  wandered  over  the  frozen  soil.  Food  was 


12  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

plentiful,  and  various  forms  of  traps  were  almost  certainly- 
used  to  capture  these  animals.  When  an  animal  had  been 
caught  in  one  of  these  traps,  the  women  and  children  would 
be  left  in  the  family  rock-shelter  or  cave  in  charge  of  the 
old  men,  while  the  young  hunters,  armed  with  their  bone- 
tipped  weapons,  would  go  out  to  kill  their  prey.  It  must 
have  been  a  great  triumph  for  the  man  whose  weapon 
pierced  the  vital  part,  and  a  great  reception  would  be  in 
store  for  him  when  they  all  returned  home  with  their  spoil 
in  the  evening. 

At  present  African  natives,  when  out  lion-hunting, 
throw  all  their  spears  at  the  lion  at  the  same  moment,  thus 
piercing  him  through  and  through.  After  the  lion  is  pro- 
nounced dead,  the  spear  which  has  reached  a  vital  part  is 
withdrawn.  Its  owner  comes  forward  to  receive  the  much- 
prized  tail,  which  is  cut  off  and  given  to  him  to  wear,  so 
that  every  one  will  recognize  him  thereafter  as  a  lion- 
killer.  Probably  some  such  ceremony  was  also  practised 
in  Magdalenian  times. 

Practically  all  the  caves  containing  famous  examples 
of  art  and  human  remains  of  prehistoric  man  are  located  in 
France  and  northern  Spain.  The  most  striking  example 
of  Magdalenian  sculpture  as  yet  discovered  was  found 
in  a  small  rock-shelter  called  Cap-Blanc,  in  the  Dordogne 
region  of  France.  In  the  strata  of  this  cave  a  beautiful 
series  of  early  Magdalenian  implements  were  unearthed 
during  the  year  1910.  Various  types  of  flint  scrapers  and 
gravers  were  found,  as  well  as  numerous  harpoons.  The 
rock-shelter  overlooks  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  River 
Beune,  which  is  a  tributary  of  the  Vezere  (Plate  II). 
On  the  rock-shelter  wall  is  carved  a  frieze  of  six  horses 
following  one  another  in  line  (Plate  VI).  One  of  these 
horses  is  seven  feet  in  length,  and  is  a  beautiful  work 
of  sculpture  (Plates  IV  and  V).  Any  unusual  prominences 
on  the  face  of  the  rock-wall  have  been  accentuated  to 
emphasize  the  outlines  of  the  horses. 

This  frieze  was  brought  to  light,  and  work  was  consid- 
ered at  an  end  in  this  rock-shelter  when  one  of  the  work- 


Early  History  of  Man  13 

men  accidentally  drove  his  pickaxe  into  a  skull  lying  some 
three  feet  below  the  nose  of  the  largest  sculptured  horse. 
Work  was  resumed,  and  a  complete  skeleton  unearthed 
(Plate  III).  There  were  three  blocks  of  stone  lying  on 
his  head,  which  unfortunately  crushed  the  top  jaw 
through  the  lower.  He  had  been  covered  with  small 
stones  and  debris,  and,  according  to  the  scientists  who 
were  present,  he  was  lying  in  a  perfectly  normal  position. 
He  was  recumbent  on  his  left  side,  the  left  arm  flexed,  the 
right  elbow  resting  on  the  right  knee,  and  his  hand  cover- 
ing his  face.  The  legs  were  drawn  up  and  interlocked. 
His  face  was  turned  onto  the  left  side,  and  was  resting  on 
his  chest.  In  other  words,  he  had  died  a  natural  death, 
and  had  been  covered  over  exactly  where  he  passed  away 
and  had  definitely  not  been  buried.  The  bones  themselves 
show  no  signs  of  disease,  and  from  the  perfect  condition 
of  the  teeth  it  is  estimated  that  he  was  about  twenty-five 
years  of  age,  and  consequently  in  the  prime  of  life.  He 
was  about  five  feet,  nine  inches  in  height,  and  belonged  to 
the  late  Cro-Magnon  race.  A  reconstruction  of  one  of 
these  men  by  MacGregor  is  on  exhibit  in  Case  3  in  Stanley 
Field  Hall. 

A  small  ivory  harpoon-point  found  lying  just  above 
the  abdomen  may  give  a  possible  clue  to  the  cause  of  his 
death.  This  weapon  may  have  caused  blood-poisoning 
which  resulted  in  death.  It  has  been  suggested  tentatively, 
however,  that  the  young  man  felt  death  approaching  and 
returned  to  the  rock-shelter,  as  he  desired  to  die  before  the 
masterpiece  he  had  helped  to  create.  There  are  several 
indications  supporting  this  assumption.  First,  the  young 
man  was  found  covered  with  stones  and  earth  and  not 
buried.  Second,  it  is  not  plausible  that  some  one  who  had 
nothing  to  do  with  the  sculpture  should  have  been  allowed 
to  desecrate  the  sanctuary  unless  he  had  assisted  in  the 
work  or,  at  any  rate,  was  directly  connected  with  it.  This, 
of  coiu-se,  must  remain  speculative,  but,  adding  a  romantic 
touch  to  the  picture,  it  is  of  some  interest. 


14  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

THE  AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN  PERIOD 

During  a  long  interval  of  time  the  climate  of  western 
Europe  grew  mild  and  genial.  The  cold  condition  passed, 
and  the  ice-sheet  retreated  northward,  and  with  it  the 
reindeer  and  other  cold-loving  fauna. 

The  Azilians  (so  called  from  the  type  station  at  Mas 
d'Azil,  southwestern  France)  were  the  last  of  the  prehistoric 
hunting  peoples  who  wandered  over  Europe.  The  barren 
tundras  and  the  wind-swept  steppes  had  been  replaced  by 
richly  forested  landscapes;  and  horses,  pigs,  and  cattle 
formed  the  chief  food  supply.  These  animals  had  not  yet 
been  domesticated,  but  it  is  probable  that  the  dog  had  been 
trained,  and  was  already  assisting  the  hunters  in  their 
pursuit  of  game. 

Art  seems  to  have  undergone  a  period  of  degeneration. 
The  beautiful  realistic  work  of  the  Magdalenians  had  been 
replaced  by  conventional  signs.  The  work  in  flint  is  also 
poor,  but  several  new  types  of  implements  were  evolved. 

THE  NEOLITHIC  PERIOD 

The  people  of  the  neolithic  period  brought  with  them 
the  new  culture  upon  which  our  modem  civilization  rests. 
They  introduced  domesticated  animals,  the  manufacture 
of  pottery,  and  agriculture.  The  implements  were  for  the 
most  part  polished  and  ground  instead  of  being  chipped  or 
flaked.  These  are  the  main  distinctions  between  palaeoli- 
thic or  old  stone  age  and  the  neolithic  or  new  stone  age. 
With  the  arrival  of  these  people  extensive  development 
became  rapid  and  almost  universal.  Subsequently  im- 
plements were  made  of  copper,  and,  still  later,  bronze,  an 
alloy  of  copper  and  tin,  was  utilized. 

The  iron  age  was  also  a  great  period  of  development, 
but  this  in  its  turn  was  superseded  by  steel — the  age  in 
which  we  live  at  present. 


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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  REFERENCES 

BOULE,  M. — Les  hommes  fossiles.     Paris  (Masson  and  Co.),  1921. 

BuRKiTT,  M.  C— Prehistory.     Cambridge  University  Press,  1926. 

Keith,  A. — The  Antiquity  of  Man.     London  (Williams  and  Nor- 
gate),  1922. 

Lalanne  and  Breuil— L'Abri  sculpts  de  Cap-Blanc.     L'Anthro- 
pologie.  Vol.  XXII,  1911,  pp.  385-402. 

McCuRDY,  G.  G. — Human  Origins.      New  York  (Appleton  and 
Co.),  1926. 

Obermaier,  H.— Fossil  Man  in  Spain.     New  Haven,  1925. 

OSBORN,  H.  F.— Men  of  the  Old  Stone  Age.      New  York  (Scrib- 
ner's),  1919. 

SOLLAS,  W.  J. — Ancient  Hunters.     London  (MacMillan  and  Co.), 
1924. 


19 


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THREE  MAMMOTHS  CARVED  ON  WALL  OF  THE  CAVE  OF  FONT-DE-GAUME  IN 

SOUTHWESTERN  FRANCE  (p.  11). 

After  Breuil. 


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